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Various authors have used different categories to estimate the value of wildlife, e.g. direct and indirect use values, option values, ethical values, etc. ln this paper, the authors address the value of wildlifebased tourism. With the development of the worfd tourism industry, the value of nature-oriented tourism is increasing on aff continents, and especially in sub-Saharan Africa. The value of such tourism is often understood as the direct economie benefits that come from "the tourist dollar' and contribute to the generation of incarne for the country and its inhabitants. However, there are other ways to value wildlife which are not sufficiently taken into account, i.e. the diverse benefits provided by ecosystem services, such as the eco/ogical value of species to a healthy ecosystem, their nLJtritiona/ value and cultural value, etc. Wildlife tourism in sub-Saharan Africa is large/y supported by Protected Areas (PAs), with their broad range of different categories, which are clearly the backbone of the industry. One leg of wildlife tourism is the wildlife-viewing tourism in natural habitats. ln sub-Saharan Africa, this type of tourism main/y occurs in PAs of the public domain, principal/y national parks (NPs). ft also occurs at a few other locations, such as game ranches which are privately owned, or communal conservancies which are community-based, bath found main/y in Southern Africa. With a few notable exceptions, a majority of NPs are struggling to fu/fil their conservation mandate, due to a Jack of financia/ and hu man re sources for the ir management: very few of them attract enough tourists to co ver their management costs. At present, most NPs require externat funding to support their day-ta-day running and achieve their conservation aims. This is nothing new. Protected areas cannat be justified sole/y by their direct economie outputs; the entire range of benefits that they provide must be considered. The other /eg of wi/dlife tourism is hunting tourism. This type of tourism main/y occurs in public/y owned PAs, which are official/y gazetted and earmarked as hunting areas (HAs) under various names (e.g. game reserves, hunting blacks, Coutadas, Zones de Chasse, Domaines de Chasse, etc.). ln a few Southern African countries, hunting tourism is a/so carried out on private and communal land. These HAs, averai/ much bigger than NPs, often a ct as buffer zones around and ecological corridors between NPs. They are usual/y private/y managed and financed and thus their contribution he/ps to reduce the financial burden on the government, of conserving and managing its biodiversity assets in these areas. Go vern ment budgets for conservation are often under-resourced, being law on the list of national development priorities. Thus, improved professionalism and efficiency in the hunting tourism industry could substantia/ly increase the ability to conserve huge tracts of natural habitat, with al/ of their biodiversity and ecosystems services, while increasing economie benefits to the local people and Government. However, most PAs are under threat from humans, caused by growing populations and their increasing need for land and natural resources. ln developing countries, concerned with food security and poverty a/leviation, poaching is a widespread threat to PAs. The often massive quantity of bushmeat taken from bath inside and outside PAs represents a kind of 'hidden' value, since it is large/y unknown, over/ooked and often illegal. When this direct consumption of game for food becomes unsustainable, due to over-harvesting the resource, its value becomes negative and counter-productive to wildlife tourism. Agriculture encroachment is a severe threat to PAs because it is converting natural habitats, destroying biodiversity and compromising ecosystem services. Pastoral encroachment is a relative/y new threat to NPs and HAs, and this issue is often neglected in management schemes although it is happening more frequent/y. The two diffe

Community based wildlife management in Zimbabwe is rooted in ideas of global significance whose central premise is that local communities will manage natural resources sustainably when rights and responsibilities are devolved to them; benefits of management exceed costs; they capture benefits; and they are small enough in membership to enforce group rules. Using results of research conducted in Chiriwo Ward, Mbire district, this paper revisits these core principles. Six years after CIRAD handed over Chivaraidze Game Ranch to the community, the project is revealing a schism between the aforesaid principles and actual practice. First, the ideal of devolving authority over wildlife to the community has come up against powerful local sectional interests. Second, the ideal of benefits of management exceeding costs is being contradicted by the reality of costs exceeding benefits. Third, the ideal of the community capturing benefits is being negated by the reality of elite capture of benefits. Fourth, the ideal of community cohesion is being neutralised by local leaders' divisive use of kinship and party political ties to gain access to and control the ranch and its wildlife. On the basis of comparative literature and our own findings, we argue for the necessity to investigate and analyse the politics behind project appropriation at the local level. We conclude that building community collective action in wildlife management requires scrutiny and understanding of power politics which shapes local participation and structures the outcomes of wildlife management.

Southern African models of wildlife management are based on the devolution of wildlife management rights and benefits to private owners and communities. The guiding assumption behind these models is that wildlife management becomes more effective once local users are able to manage it and benefit from it. In recent decades, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe have decentralized state decision-making to local stakeholders, thus enabling them to benefit from numerous opportunities offered by the wildlife tourism industry, especially trophy hunting (a high-value-added activity). This approach has been particularly successful on commercial farmlands, where substantial areas have been converted to game ranches that generate profits mainly through trophy hunting but also through live animal sales, ecotourism and game meat production, among others. Although making good profits while conserving wildlife and providing social and economic benefits in rural areas, commercial wildlife ranches have been often perceived as "While only" elite businesses, resulting in some cases in serious political and land tenure tensions. The decentralization approach has been less straightforward on communal lands because communal property regimes (in which defined groups may collectively exploit common resources within a defined jurisdiction) need to be established. Community-based wildlife management approaches were initiated successfully in Zimbabwe in the early 1990s under the CAMPFIRE programme, although these were later hampered by political developments. Other countries have also adopted community-based wildlife management approaches. In Namibia, for example, communal area conservancies are proving to be highly successful in a context of low human population density. There is a need however, to develop community commercial conservancy as a wildlife-based land use option in the more general context of Southern African populated communal lands. In this communication, we promote the idea of developing models of multi-purpose wildlife use and trade as a development tool offering alternative livelihood options for rural communities living in marginal areas rich in wildlife. Tacking this challenge will require a supporting the revision of decentralization processes, adapting legal frameworks, and developing innovative business models involving effective public-private partnerships. (Texte intégral)

The Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) aims at the conservation of migratory waterbird populations through the joint production of knowledge, collaborative and sustainable management. Within this framework the RESSOURCE project (Strengthen Southern Sahara Expertise on Birds and their Rational Use for Communities and their Environment) funded by FAO, EU and FFEM was developed. The aim of the project is to improve the knowledge on waterbirds and their using in order to promote a better management of the waterbird populations and habitats on the following sites: the Senegal River Delta (Senegal), Inner Niger Delta (Mali), Lakes Chad and Fitri (Chad), the Nile Delta and Nasser Lake (Egypt) and the Khor Abu Habil (Sudan). Component 3 of the project focus on the using of waterbirds for which there is little or no data available about ecotourism, sport-hunting, recreation, food or commercial hunting. Our aim is to address the local and national socio-economic impacts of these sectors. Therefore, to strengthen the conservation of waterbirds and Sahelien wetlands, the project aims to build national observatories. Indeed, defined as information systems, they facilitate shared understanding of the issues, participate in decision-making, promote collective and coherent actions, organize the management of information flows and their links to actions. This information is derived from the data collected according to a series of indicators generated by this same collection process. Thus, facilitating such collection also facilitates the creation of these observatories. New technologies and social networks are now considered effective tools for conservation. They can contribute significantly to the collection and sharing of data in real time. Today, there are a number of free and open tools used for species conservation against illegal wildlife trade (Traffic 2017). Experiments have shown that SMS may be limited in terms of collection and transfer of complex information (Le Bel, Chavernac et al. 2014). It is therefore necessary to choose the most suitable technology for the production of direct data in real time. To meet our objectives of observatory building, of managing complex data and information flows for sharing, for decision-making and collective action, we turned to OpenDataKit system with KoboToolBox and its KoBoCollect Android smartphone application developed by the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative and OCHA (Kreutzer 2014). The tool responds to the following 4 main actions: i/ Collecting field data on a smartphone, ii/ Centralizing the data on the Internet platform, iii/ Analyzing the data (automatic pre-analysis and downloading to spreadsheet) and iv/ Giving back data to the field. This tool does not require any qualification or advanced technical knowledge. It can be used in areas not covered by the internet because once collected the data is stored in the smartphone. When the investigator finds internet access he can send this data by synchronization to the platform. Previously used for inter-stakeholder study and decision-making projects on human-wildlife conflict mitigation (LeBel, Chavernac et al. 2016) we benefit from the experiences and advice of a growing 'community'. Likewise, since the project is long-term, it aims at the transfer and appropriation by national scientific, administrative and citizen actors of this digital tool, which can improve consultation and decision-making. The use of KoBoCollect involves a 3 step process. Following a first exploratory survey in November 2016, we were able to identify socio-cultural, economic, legal indicators and logistical constraints (in particular the fear of speaking and contradictory speeches) and design a first questionnaire. During the second phase of coconstruction in January 2017 with the national consultants, a questionnaire with 5 themes and two entry points on waterbird utilization, trade and consumption was tested in order to design the survey. The third step was to develop an electronic form under KoBoCollect, to test it for improvement and to train the team of enumerators to a digital note taking. The survey in Lakes Chad and Fitri took place in 20 villages (360 interviews) from 5th March to 9th April 2017. Information collected aims at testing hypotheses on the following behaviors: food choice, food access, income, leisure and pleasure. We collect quantitative and qualitative data through a set of questions focusing on the multi-uses of waterbirds in these territories. Additional questions were added on stakeholders' perceptions and knowledge of wetlands, waterbirds, migration, legislation and hunting. The first Chadian data is currently stored on the KoBoToolbox site and nearly ready for analyzing. The innovation within this socio-economic, socio-cultural and cognitive survey protocol is the use of the KoBoCollect as a co-production tool. Thus, the use of this numerical digital interface tool has several advantages: speed of access to collected data and its sharing, standardization of qualitative data for statistical analysis and pre-analysis carried out on the storage platform of KoBoToolbox, compilation and creation of database, remote access and data sharing and finally solution sharing by the "KoBoToolbox community". In this way, it could constitute the first step to the observatory building. Because of these facilities and by attempting to minimize bias of protocol change, we can improve the collection with the investigators in a more reactive way during the process. This saves time and meets scientific and financial objectives. Also, the consultants' appropriation took place quickly and did not encounter any specific problems, even if they mentioned navigational difficulties within the digital questionnaire, as we might do in an interview with a paper questionnaire and handwritten notes. Similarly, the challenge of collecting qualitative, literal and complex data with a digital interface remains to be considered. Thus, field tests have enabled us to identify important points to optimize and improve the tool whenever possible. For the moment these points concern computer bugs and correspondence of the environment between the website and the smartphones. Since the African continent has a high level of mobile penetration and the highest mobile growth rate (Aker and Mbiti 2010), this type of mobile data collection system could be an efficient tool for strengthening the monitoring and management of natural resources in terms of speed and accession. However, in order that these gains not to be unnecessary, the choice of such a tool must take into account: knowledge of the terrain and its constraints (energy, internet coverage and GSM), co-construction of the questionnaire, standardization of the data collection, numerous field tests, a simplified questionnaire for simplified navigation within the application, the relationship between time passed on direct digitization of data and time passed in preparation and digital collection.

En Afrique centrale, pour de nombreuses familles rurales, la chasse constitue une source de nourriture souvent primordiale et la vente des excédents de gibier, une source complémentaire de revenus monétaires. Cependant, avec l'accroissement démographique soutenu, la demande en viandes par les pôles de consommation (villages, villes secondaires, métropoles) augmente progressivement, avec, pour conséquence, une exploitation accrue et non durable de nombreuses populations animales sauvages. La quantité de viandes sauvages consommée annuellement dans le bassin du Congo est importante et représenterait 4 à 5 millions de tonnes métriques, soit approximativement l'équivalent de la moitié de la production bovine de l'Union européenne. À défaut d'alternatives efficaces et durables, et compte tenu de l'impossibilité d'interdire la consommation des viandes sauvages, un consensus émerge progressivement sur la nécessité de mettre en place en Afrique centrale les conditions d'une exploitation durable des espèces sauvages pour promouvoir simultanément la conservation de la biodiversité, la sécurité alimentaire et les moyens de subsistance locaux. En d'autres termes, autoriser (en dehors des aires protégées) l'exploitation des espèces les plus résilientes par et pour les communautés locales, et en promouvoir la commercialisation au sein de filières formelles (en maintenant simultanément des restrictions sur les espèces vulnérables) pourraient permettre de donner l'impulsion nécessaire à une gestion plus durable des espèces sauvages. C'est dans ce contexte que quatre pays (Gabon, République centrafricaine, République du Congo et République démocratique du Congo) ont sollicité l'assistance de l'Organisation des Nations Unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture (FAO) et du Fonds pour l'Environnement Mondial (FEM) pour conduire des tests pilotes de gestion participative de la faune et de la chasse, documenter et capitaliser les leçons apprises en vue de garantir la duplication des modèles jugés pertinents. Un projet sur 5 ans intitulé "Gestion durable de la faune et du secteur de la viande de brousse en Afrique centrale" a été lancé en fin 2012. Le présent ouvrage s'inscrit dans le cadre général de la documentation des expériences et des leçons apprises du projet. Il comprend trois parties distribuées en treize chapitres. La première partie introduit le questionnement et le contexte abordant les aspects économiques, nutritionnels et juridiques liés à la chasse dite "villageoise" et à l'utilisation de la faune sauvage par les populations locales. Dans une deuxième partie, les acteurs impliqués dans la mise en oeuvre du projet "Gestion durable de la faune et du secteur de la viande de brousse en Afrique centrale" décrivent les retours d'expérience dans les sites pilotes du projet en République du Congo, République démocratique du Congo et République du Gabon. Ces sites représentent des conditions socio-économiques et écologiques très diverses que l'on retrouve dans la zone forestière de l'ensemble des pays du bassin du Congo, ils sont à ce titre riches d'enseignements pour le gestionnaire ou le responsable des orientations politiques. Enfin la troisième partie est une tentative de synthèse des expériences venues du terrain et de l'analyse de la littérature qui met en exergue les possibles voies qui s'ouvrent pour une gestion plus durable de la faune sauvage par les communautés locales dans le bassin du Congo. L'ensemble des expériences présentées dans cet ouvrage propose des réponses concrètes pour le futur de la gestion durable de la chasse villageoise en Afrique centrale. Premièrement, le cadre juridique et réglementaire doit évoluer pour permettre une participation active des communautés locales, voire une gestion locale négociée de la faune sauvage, tout en restant suffisamment flexible pour s'accommoder aux divers autres objectifs de gestion et aux diverses formes de gouvernance locale, les mieux adaptées à chaque contexte. Deuxièmement, le secteur des viandes sauvages en Afrique centrale doit sortir de l'informel et devenir officiellement partie intégrante des politiques gouvernementales de réduction de la pauvreté et de sécurité alimentaire. À court terme, le développement de systèmes alimentaires durables en Afrique centrale doit explicitement inclure la contribution des produits carnés sauvages (fauniques et halieutiques). Troisièmement, toute démarche visant à rendre les communautés locales responsables et redevables de la gestion de la faune est vouée à l'échec si elle n'est pas associée à une volonté politique et à un processus d'accompagnement vers la décentralisation de la gestion des ressources fauniques et de renforcement de la société civile. La dévolution des droits et responsabilités doit se faire par étapes et prendra du temps. Quatrièmement, la gestion durable de la faune ne peut être une réussite que si l'ensemble des parties prenantes parvient à coconstruire un objectif de gestion consensuel sur ces espaces multifonctionnels et multiusagers. Enfin, un changement de paradigme est nécessaire, afin que les parties prenantes à la gestion de la faune acceptent de travailler sur la base d'une démarche adaptative, où le droit à l'erreur existe, mais où les risques sont anticipés, pour mieux répondre aux défis continuellement changeants. Loin de proposer un recueil de solutions miracles, cet ouvrage rapporte des leçons apprises qui sont autant de piliers posés pour poursuivre l'appui à l'émergence d'une gestion locale et participative de la faune et de la chasse en Afrique centrale. Nous espérons que les recommandations émises dans cet ouvrage pourront inspirer les décideurs, les gestionnaires et les bailleurs de fonds, pour continuer de tracer un chemin qui reste long.

Choosing and adapting wildlife management options ideally requires appropriate and affordable information on trends in animal populations and offtakes over several years. In African tropical forests, most studies have been documenting separately wildlife abundance, offtake and consumption of bushmeat. In addition, most site-level assessments were so far implemented using different methodologies, thus limiting the potential for meta-analysis at inter-site level. Yet, measuring concurrently spatial patterns of wildlife occurrence and hunting activities at different sites along gradients of human pressure (land conversion, human density) may provide a useful basis to identify indicators of non-sustainability of hunting, and to help predict temporal trends at site level. In this study, we implemented a standard protocol aiming at assessing bushmeat use and availability over 6 hunting grounds located in the Congo Basin (Gabon, Congo, and Democratic Republic of Congo). This preliminary diagnostic was conducted to evaluate the feasibility of testing community-based hunting approaches in the framework of a FAO/GEF project. For this purpose, we mapped the contours and the principal features of every hunting ground, and characterized the management rules, wildlife resources, hunting practices, offtakes and consumption. Results of the comparison between sites show how indicators of game species availability (e.g. species diversity, abundance indices, etc.) and resource use (e.g. catch per unit effort, ratio between small and large body-sized species, composition of the catch, etc.) vary in contexts of contrasted hunting pressure. We discuss their respective relevance as a basis for implementing evidence-based wildlife management strategies through adaptive management.

In Africa, overhunting of tropical wildlife for food remains an intractable issue. Donors and governments remain committed to invest in efforts to both conserve and allow the sustainable use of wildlife. Four principal barriers need to be overcome: (i) communities are not motivated to conserve wildlife long-term because they have no formal rights to benefit from wildlife, or to exclude others from taking it on their land; (ii) multispecies harvests, typical of bushmeat hunting scenarios, place large-bodied species at risk of extinction; (iii) wildlife production cannot expand, in the same way that livestock farming can, to meet the expected growth in consumer demand; and (iv) wildlife habitat is lost through conversion to agriculture, housing, transportation networks and extractive industries. In this review, we examine the actors involved in the use of wildlife as food and discuss the possible solutions required to address urban and rural bushmeat consumption. Interventions must tackle use and conservation of wildlife through the application of context-relevant interventions in a variety of geographies across Africa. That said, for any bushmeat solution to work, there needs to be concurrent and comparable investment in strengthening the effectiveness of protected area management and enforcement of wildlife conservation laws.

Les viandes d'animaux sauvages terrestres ou semi-terrestres, dénommées "viandes de brousse", sont une composante essentielle de la sécurité alimentaire et des moyens de subsistance dans les zones rurales d'Afrique centrale. Cependant, la pression croissante de la chasse a des effets tangibles sur la faune et est susceptible d'avoir des incidences à long terme sur les écosystèmes forestiers. Il devient donc nécessaire de s'assurer que l'utilisation de la faune se pratique dans les limites de la durabilité. Certaines expériences pratiques nous montrent que plus les communautés locales sont impliquées dans le développement du processus de gestion, plus les chances de succès sont élevées. Le premier guide de cette boîte à outils presente les composantes essentielles à la phase de diagnostic préliminaire approfondi qui permet de comprendre le système de chasse dans son état initial. Le deuxième guide qui fait l'objet de ce document, s'adresse aux gestionnaires qui souhaitent développer et mettre en oeuvre un plan de gestion participative de la chasse villageoise en Afrique centrale. Il propose une vue d'ensemble de l'approche participative qui peut être suivie, en décrivant les différentes étapes et aspects à prendre en compte pour le succès de la gestion dans le long terme. Par contre, nous ne prescrivons pas une méthodologie pas à pas, car nous pensons que le détail méthodologique doit émerger des réflexions de l'équipe de gestion locale et non pas être imposé de façon externe et prédéfinie. De nombreux aspects de la gestion dépendent par exemple de l'objectif de gestion fixé et différeront en fonction des contextes en privilégiant plus ou moins les objectifs de conservation, de sécurité alimentaire, de gestion du territoire, du renforcement de la gouvernance locale, de génération de revenus commerciaux, etc… Nous espérons que ce guide, inspiré du projet "Gestion de la faune et du secteur de la viande de brousse en Afrique centrale" pourra inspirer la mise en oeuvre de nouvelles initiatives en Afrique centrale.

Managing complex hunting socio-ecological systems within a context of uncertainty requires setting up efficient ways to monitor changes in the system and inform decision making in an adaptive management process. In such context, building trust through collaboration, institutional development, and social learning enhances efforts to foster ecosystem co-management. This approach draws explicit attention to the learning and collaboration functions necessary to improve our understanding of, and ability to respond to, complex social–ecological systems. Monitoring methods can generate observations over long time periods, incorporate large sample sizes, are relatively inexpensive and invite the participation of harvesters as researchers. We tested a combination of role playing games, traditional knowledge, technological innovations (camera traps and KoBoCollect) to co-develop a monitoring system for wildlife resources and hunting efforts in an indigenous hunting territory in the Amazon Colombia where hunters have organized themselves to develop an adaptive management approach to their hunting activities. The methods involve the active participation of hunters in data collection and an automatic tool for data analysis that allows users to visualize outputs instantaneously (e.g. map of offtakes per species, graph with number of prey per species per month). The information generated is directly usable by hunters for management decisions. We demonstrate the importance of such participatory monitoring models for building institutional trust between stakeholders (indigenous communities, governmental institutions in charge of wildlife management and civil society) as well as provide tools that are directly usable by local decision makers.

In a context of global biodiversity threat, overexploitation of wildlife populations through hunting is of major concern. Subsistence hunting, as a source of protein and incomes, is however a major component of livelihood for some local communities. The Congo basin in Central Africa is emblematic of these challenges, with rapidly declining wildlife populations in this biodiversity hotspot and the presence of rural populations relying on the exploitation of natural resources. The elaboration of sustainable hunting and management strategies is crucial but hampered by the lack of information on the impact of hunting on the status of wildlife populations. Measuring concurrently spatial patterns of wildlife occurrence and hunting activities at different sites along a gradient of hunting pressure may provide an important basis to identify indicators of non-sustainability of hunting. In this study, we implemented a standard protocol aiming at assessing the relationship between hunting practices and wildlife occurrence over 6 hunting grounds in the Congo Basin (Gabon, Congo, and Democratic Republic of Congo). Camera traps were deployed for a month over >300 sampling stations to detect the presence of elusive forest dwelling species. Socio-economic surveys were concurrently conducted in villages to map the contours and the principal features of every hunting ground, and characterize the management rules, hunting practices, offtakes and bushmeat consumption. The data collected by the camera traps were analysed using statistical models that estimate probabilities of occurrence of focal wildlife species at each station. Our analysis identified the environmental and hunting related drivers of small- and large-scale spatial variations in occurrence for species belonging to these different indicator categories. Different categories of species were distinguished according to their potential as indicators of hunting pressure or practices. We discuss their respective relevance as a basis for implementing evidence-based wildlife management strategies through adaptive management. (Texte intégral)

Les viandes d'animaux sauvages terrestres ou semi-terrestres, dénommées " viandes de brousse ", sont une composante essentielle de la sécurité alimentaire et des moyens de subsistance dans les zones rurales d'Afrique Centrale. Cependant, la pression croissante de la chasse a des effets tangibles sur la faune et est susceptible d'avoir des incidences à long terme sur les écosystèmes forestiers. Il devient donc nécessaire de s'assurer que l'utilisation de la faune se pratique dans les limites de la durabilité. Certaines expériences pratiques nous montrent que plus les communautés locales sont impliquées dans le développement du processus de gestion, plus les chances de succès sont élevées. Afin de mettre en place un processus de gestion participatif de la faune, un diagnostic de l'état initial s'impose. Ce document s'adresse aux gestionnaires qui souhaitent établir un diagnostic préalable à la mise en oeuvre de la gestion communautaire de la chasse. Il présente les outils d´évaluation de l'importance de la faune dans les modes de vie locaux et les règles de gestion en place, les outils de cartographie du terroir de chasse, d'analyse des pratiques de chasse et le suivi des prélèvements par les chasseurs, l'analyse des ressources fauniques, l'analyse de la consommation de protéines au niveau local, l'analyse de la filière, ainsi que quelques conseils pour la restitution des résultats. Il présente le principe général des méthodes et les illustre avec des exemples tirés du projet " Gestion durable du secteur de la faune sauvage et de la viande de brousse en Afrique Centrale ".